Climate change poses one of the most pressing global challenges of our time, with its impacts felt disproportionately across regions, societies, and ecosystems. In India, the reality of climate change is manifesting through an alarming rise in the frequency and severity of extreme weather events, such as floods and droughts. These hazards, coupled with socio-economic vulnerabilities, amplify the risks to livelihoods, ecosystems, and development outcomes. Addressing these multifaceted risks requires a robust understanding of the interplay between climate hazards, exposure, and vulnerability-the cornerstone of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) risk assessment framework. Overview of the report Realising the need for a coordinated effort to map climate relevant vulnerability and climate risk, to enhance the understanding in related issues, and to build the capacity of the state departments to carry out their climate vulnerability and risk assessment, the Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India has taken up several initiatives. The report, "District-level Climate Risk Assessment for India: Mapping Flood and Drought Risks Using IPCC Framework," is an outcome of the project jointly funded by the Department of Science and Technology and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation. By adopting a human-centric, district-level approach, it highlights the intricate connections between climatic hazards and socio-economic disparities. Notably, this study emphasizes the two most widespread climate hazards in India-floods and droughts-and analyzes their occurrence over the past five decades (1970-2019). It employs a scientifically rigorous methodology, leveraging a wealth of data to develop spatially explicit risk indices for all Indian districts. By doing so, it not only identifies areas of heightened risk but also offers an actionable pathway for adaptation planning at both regional and national levels. Objectives The overarching aim of this study is to assess the risk associated with two prevalent climate hazards in India –drought and flood– in the context of historical and current climate conditions during 1970–2019. The focus on flood and drought stems from their widespread occurrence across the majority of Indian districts (Mujumdar et al., 2020). According to the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), 87% and 30% of districts in India are respectively susceptible to drought and flood (IMD, 2022). Specific objectives of the study include: Develop district-level flood and drought hazard, exposure, and vulnerability maps, which will lead to the generation of comprehensive flood and drought risk maps for India. Develop district-level flood and drought hazard, exposure, and vulnerability maps for the Indian states and UTs. Building the capacity of State climate change cells and allied departments in climate change risk assessment for adaptation planning. Salient Features Focus on flood and drought: The study focuses on drought and flood, the two most prevalent climate hazards in India, while acknowledging other hazards such as heatwaves and cyclones. Drought is defined as meteorological drought, characterised by rainfall anomalies (deviation from the long-term trend). Flood risk is based on the probability of hydrometeorological floods shaped by rainfall anomalies and topographical, geological, and hydrological factors. Human-centric approach: This study integrates exposure, vulnerability, and climatic hazards to evaluate flood and drought risk. The risk assessment thus explores the manner and extent to which climate hazards may impact people and livelihoods, considering hazard-specific exposure and inherent vulnerability. Ex-ante approach: It aligns with the Prime Minister's 10-point agenda (NDMA, n.d.) for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) as the current approach is rooted in the ex-ante DRR framework - prioritising proactive measures over relief-based strategies. Spatial scale: The assessment is carried out at the district level an essential administrative unit for decision-making throughout India. Temporal scale: The assessment considers the current climate over a 50-year time period from 1970 to 2019. Comparability: The risk indices are relative and serve to rank districts within the country or a state/UT. A higher value of the risk index signifies a district's elevated risk compared to others; the true utility lies in the comparative assessment. Capacity building: Training and capacity building at the state level have raised awareness of the utility and use of a risk assessment framework. States have been shared with a broad approach and common framework for risk assessment, thereby creating a knowledge network of state departments, academic institutions, and universities. Key Findings Flood Risk Assessment The flood risk arises at the intersection of flood hazard, flood exposure, and vulnerability. The range of the flood risk index is from 0.015 to 0.688 for all India, indicating that flood risks vary extremely across districts of India. Fifty-one districts fall into the 'Very High' flood risk category (0.440-0.688), and another 118 districts fall into the 'High' flood risk category (0.284-0.439). About 85% of districts in the 'Very High' or 'High' flood risk category are located in Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Gujarat, Odisha, and Jammu and Kashmir. Drought Risk Assessment The drought risk arises at the intersection of drought hazard, exposure, and vulnerability. The drought risk index ranges from 0.042 to 0.644 for all India, indicating the variation in drought risk across districts of India. Ninety-one districts fall in the 'Very High' drought risk category (0.510-0.644) and another 188 districts in the 'High' drought risk category (0.450-0.509). More than 85% of districts in the 'Very High' or 'High' drought risk category are located in Bihar, Assam, Jharkhand, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh, Kerala, Uttarakhand, and Haryana. Dual Risk of Flood and Drought Considering the top 50 districts with the highest flood risk and the top 50 districts with the highest drought risk, 11 districts are at 'Very High' risk of both flood and drought. Districts facing this dual risk include Patna in Bihar; Alappuzha in Kerala; Charaideo, Dibrugarh, Sibsagar, South Salmara-Mankachar, and Golaghat in Assam; Kendrapara in Odisha, and Murshidabad, Nadia, and Uttar Dinajpur in West Bengal. Utility of the Report and Way Forward Comprehensive risk mapping for drought and flood, facilitating comparative analysis of districts, based on standardised indicators, enables prioritisation of locations for adaptation interventions. Determining risk components based on the relative contribution of flood and/or drought hazards, exposure, and vulnerability facilitates the identification of critical drivers that need to be addressed in adaptation planning. It provides valuable insights to policymakers for integration into the State Action Plan on Climate Change. Way Forward Multi-Scale and Sectoral Approach: Adopt a multi-scale and sector-specific approach to assess risks for various sectors and at various levels, from local to regional and national scales. Incorporating Emerging Risks: Adapt risk assessment frameworks to address emerging risks such as landslides, heat stress, and compound extreme events. Risk Assessment under Climate Change Scenarios: Incorporate future climate scenarios in risk assessment for better preparedness for impending climate change. Continuously Building Capacity: Continuously enhance the capacity of development administrators at state and district levels to develop and apply risk and vulnerability assessments in adaptation planning. Source : District-Level Climate Risk Assessment for India: Mapping Flood and Drought Risks Using IPCC Framework